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Deep-sea mining is emerging as a potential solution to the world’s growing demand for critical minerals. Yet it also risks opening a new chapter of geopolitical competition and environmental uncertainty.

The accelerating global demand for critical minerals is pushing governments and companies to explore new sources of strategic resources beyond traditional land-based deposits. As the transition to renewable energy technologies intensifies, attention has increasingly turned to the vast mineral reserves located on the ocean floor. In particular, polymetallic nodules scattered across the Pacific seabed contain commercially valuable concentrations of nickel, cobalt, copper, and manganese—metals that are essential for electric vehicle batteries, renewable energy infrastructure, and other low-carbon technologies.
This growing interest has placed deep-sea mining at the centre of an emerging geopolitical debate. Proponents argue that seabed extraction could help diversify global supply chains and reduce dependence on highly concentrated terrestrial mining sectors currently dominated by a small number of countries. Critics, however, warn that the environmental consequences of mining largely unexplored deep-sea ecosystems remain deeply uncertain and potentially irreversible. As governments, corporations, and Pacific Island states weigh the economic opportunities against the environmental risks, deep-sea mining is rapidly becoming a new arena of strategic competition and global governance challenges.

The technological frontier beneath the ocean floor

Deep-sea mining refers to the extraction of mineral resources from the seabed at depths typically exceeding 200 meters, though most proposed mining operations target abyssal plains between 4,000 and 6,000 metres below the ocean surface. The process relies on advanced underwater technologies, including remotely operated vehicles and hydraulic lifting systems that transport mineral-rich materials to surface support vessels.
One of the most commercially promising targets of these operations is polymetallic nodules, also known as manganese nodules. These potato-sized mineral concentrations form over millions of years as layers of metal oxides accumulate around a central core, such as a fragment of rock or organic material. Although polymetallic nodules are found in several ocean basins, they occur in particularly high concentrations in specific regions of the Pacific Ocean.
The most significant of these areas is the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ), a vast seabed region stretching roughly 4,500 miles between Hawaii and Mexico. Covering approximately 4.5 million square kilometres, the CCZ hosts the largest known field of polymetallic nodules in the world. Estimates suggest that this region alone may contain more nickel, cobalt, and manganese than all currently known terrestrial deposits combined. Such resource abundance has transformed the CCZ into the focal point of global interest in deep-sea mining.
However, extracting minerals from such extreme depths presents formidable technological challenges. Mining systems must operate under immense pressure, in near-freezing temperatures, and in understudied environments. While several companies have successfully conducted small-scale collection tests, the transition to full commercial operations remains uncertain and technologically complex.

Critical minerals and the energy transition

The surge in interest surrounding seabed resources is closely linked to the rapid expansion of technologies associated with the global energy transition. Electric vehicles, renewable energy systems, and large-scale battery storage infrastructure require substantial quantities of metals such as cobalt, nickel, copper, and manganese.
Demand projections illustrate the scale of this challenge. According to estimates from the International Energy Agency, global demand for critical minerals used in clean energy technologies could double by 2040, with some minerals experiencing even sharper increases. Electric vehicles alone require significantly larger quantities of metals compared to gas-powered vehicles. For example, an electric vehicle may use nearly four times more copper than an internal combustion engine vehicle due to its electrical systems and battery components.
At the same time, existing terrestrial mining operations face growing geological and regulatory constraints. The grade of mineral ores extracted from land-based mines has steadily declined over time, forcing companies to process larger volumes of rock to obtain the same quantity of metals. In addition, terrestrial mining is often associated with severe environmental degradation, deforestation, and social conflicts in mineral-rich regions. Studies by the World Resources Institute show that mining has caused significant forest loss between 2001 and 2020, particularly in countries such as Indonesia and Brazil, leading to habitat destruction, soil erosion, and increased risks of flooding and landslides. Moreover, according to WWF, mining is currently the fourth largest driver of deforestation globally and, when indirect impacts are considered, it can affect up to one third of the world’s forest ecosystems, due to associated infrastructure, pollution, and land-use changes.
Against this backdrop, proponents of deep-sea mining argue that seabed resources could provide an alternative source of critical minerals that may help meet rising demand while reducing reliance on terrestrial supply chains. In particular, some Western policymakers view seabed resources as a potential way to reduce dependence on supply networks currently dominated by China’s mineral processing industry.

Solution or technological gamble?

Despite its potential economic benefits, deep-sea mining remains highly controversial. Supporters argue that the extraction of polymetallic nodules could help address looming shortages of critical minerals while avoiding some of the negative environmental and social consequences associated with land-based mining. They also point to emerging technological innovations designed to minimise the environmental impacts of deep-sea mining, such as autonomous underwater vehicles capable of selectively collecting nodules while reducing disturbance to surrounding ecosystems.
Yet many scientists and environmental organisations view deep-sea mining as a premature technological gamble. The deep ocean represents one of the least explored ecosystems on Earth, and researchers estimate that the vast majority of species inhabiting the abyssal seabed remain unknown to science. In some areas, such as hydrothermal vents, life thrives in complete darkness through chemosynthesis, supporting highly specialised organisms including giant tube worms, bioluminescent fish, and other species found nowhere else on the planet. Since polymetallic nodules themselves serve as habitats for many of these understudied or unknown organisms, their removal could permanently destroy unique ecosystems that have evolved over millions of years, potentially before they are even scientifically documented.
Experimental disturbances conducted in the 1970s and 1980s illustrate the potential long-term consequences of seabed disruption. In the Clarion–Clipperton Zone—an area beyond national jurisdiction governed under UNCLOS as the Common Heritage of Mankind—early mining simulations involving the mechanical ploughing of polymetallic nodules left visible tracks on the seabed. Decades later, these disturbances remain clearly identifiable, with ecological recovery appearing incomplete. This is particularly concerning given the scale of planned industrial activity in the region, where extensive exploration contracts have already been granted. Moreover, mining operations are expected to generate sediment plumes capable of dispersing fine particles over long distances, potentially amplifying environmental impacts beyond the immediate extraction sites.
Beyond direct habitat destruction, mining operations may also generate sediment plumes that travel through the water column for considerable distances. These plumes could smother marine life, disrupt feeding mechanisms in plankton communities, and release toxic metals into surrounding waters. Since the ecological dynamics of deep-sea environments remain poorly understood, scientists warn that the full consequences of such disturbances may be impossible to predict.

Geopolitics of the seabed

Beyond environmental concerns, deep-sea mining is increasingly entangled in the geopolitics of global resource competition. Control over critical minerals has become a strategic priority for major powers seeking to secure supply chains essential for economic competitiveness and technological innovation.
China currently dominates the global critical mineral supply chain, particularly in mineral processing and refining. To maintain this strategic advantage, Beijing has actively pursued exploration rights for seabed resources through the International Seabed Authority, holding more exploration contracts than any other country. Chinese state-backed enterprises are also heavily investing in deep-sea research vessels, underwater technologies, and marine exploration capabilities.
For the United States and its allies, seabed mining offers a potential opportunity to diversify supply chains and reduce reliance on Chinese-controlled processing industries. However, the geopolitical landscape is complicated by legal disputes surrounding ocean governance. The United States has never ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; it is therefore not formally part of the international regulatory system governing mining activities in international waters.
This jurisdictional divide has sparked tensions within the international community. Efforts by some actors to pursue seabed mining outside established multilateral frameworks have raised concerns about the erosion of international ocean governance and the possibility of unilateral exploitation of seabed resources.
Pacific Island states have also emerged as key geopolitical actors in this evolving landscape. Many of these nations control vast Exclusive Economic Zones that contain potentially valuable mineral deposits. While some governments view deep-sea mining as a pathway to economic development, others fear that large-scale extraction could threaten marine ecosystems that are vital to their food security and cultural heritage.

Governance challenges and the future of regulation

The central institution responsible for regulating mineral activities in international waters is the International Seabed Authority (ISA). Established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the ISA is tasked with managing seabed resources on behalf of humanity while ensuring the protection of the marine environment.
This dual mandate presents significant governance challenges. On the one hand, the ISA must facilitate the development of seabed resources for the benefit of humankind. On the other hand, it must ensure that mining activities do not cause serious harm to fragile deep-sea ecosystems.
To achieve this balance, the ISA is currently negotiating a comprehensive regulatory framework known as the Mining Code. This framework is intended to establish environmental standards, monitoring systems, and financial mechanisms governing the commercial exploitation of seabed resources. However, critics argue that the regulatory process has struggled to keep pace with technological developments and commercial pressures. Concerns have been raised regarding the ISA’s institutional capacity, transparency, and ability to effectively monitor mining operations across vast ocean territories.

Conclusion: the need for a precautionary approach

The debate surrounding deep-sea mining reflects a broader tension between the urgent demand for critical minerals and the need to protect vulnerable marine ecosystems. While seabed resources may offer a potential solution to emerging mineral shortages, the scientific uncertainties and governance challenges associated with deep-sea mining remain substantial.
Given these uncertainties, many policymakers and scientists advocate for a precautionary approach to seabed exploitation. Strengthening regulatory frameworks, improving scientific understanding of deep-sea ecosystems, and enhancing international cooperation will be essential before large-scale mining operations can be responsibly undertaken.
Ultimately, the race for critical minerals beneath the waves will shape not only the future of global supply chains but also the evolving governance of the world’s oceans. Whether deep-sea mining becomes a pillar of the energy transition or a source of geopolitical and environmental conflict will depend largely on how the international community manages this emerging frontier.

Reference list

Chandrasekhar, Aruna, et al. “Q&A: What Does Deep-Sea Mining Mean for Climate Change and Biodiversity Loss?” Carbon Brief, 13 Mar. 2026. https://interactive.carbonbrief.org/deep-sea-mining/index.html

International Seabed Authority. Deep-Sea Mining (DSM): Brief of the Scientific Advisory Board. International Seabed Authority, 2025. https://isa.org.jm/wp-content/uploads/2025/10/250403-DSM-Brief-Rev-7.pdf

Jackson, Julian. “The World Currently Lacks the Ability to Govern Deep-Sea Mining.” The Pew Charitable Trusts, 15 Jan. 2025. https://www.pew.org/en/about/news-room/opinion/2025/01/15/the-world-currently-lacks-the-ability-to-govern-deep-sea-mining

Kind, Thomas, and Kramer, Mortiz. “Mining impacts affect up to 1/3 of global forest ecosystems, and tipped to rise with increased demand for metals.” WWF, 18 Apr 2023. https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?8455466/Mining-impacts-affect-up-to-13-of-global-forest-ecosystems-and-tipped-to-rise-with-increased-demand-for-metals

LaTourrette, Tom, et al. The Potential Impact of Seabed Mining on Critical Mineral Supply Chains and Global Geopolitics. RAND Corporation, 2025. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA3560-1.html

Metaxas, A., et al. “Comparing Environmental Impacts of Deep-Seabed and Land-Based Mining: A Defensible Framework.” Global Change Biology, vol. 30, no. 5, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17334

Pecoraro, Alberto, and Nidhi Shah. Governance Challenges of Deep Seabed Mining. United Nations University Institute on Comparative Regional Integration Studies, 2026. https://unu.edu/publication/governance-challenges-deep-seabed-mining

Stanimirova, Radost, et al. “Mining is Increasingly Pushing into Critical Rainforest and Protected Areas.” World Resources Institute, 23 Oct 2024. https://www.wri.org/insights/how-mining-impacts-forests

Willaert, Klaas. “Assessment of the ISA Draft Exploitation Regulations.” Maritime Institute, April 2019.

Yao, Wen, et al. “Development of Deep-Sea Mining and Its Environmental Impacts: A Review.” Frontiers in Marine Science, vol. 12, 26 May 2025. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2025.1598584

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Autore dell’articolo: Andrea García is a graduated student from English Studies and holds a Master’s degree in International Relations: Global Governance and Regional Studies at the Complutense University of Madrid. Her academic background combines a solid theoretical foundation with an interdisciplinary and practical approach, focusing on the analysis of contemporary political phenomena, regional dynamics, and global challenges, especially in the region of the United States and Asia.

 

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